Life History as a method os Social Research Essay

Life History as a method os Social Research - Essay Example Choosing a candidate for my life history interview was one of the toughest decisions. As I sat on my study desk wondering who could give me a valuable insight on a society that existed more than half a century ago, I was startled by the shrill ring of the phone. It was my childhood friend who was of Indian origin .he had called to invite me over to his house as it happened to be an Indian festival and his grandma had dished out a myriad of delicacies which he wanted me to try out. And that was the moment a brilliant idea crossed my head. His grandma! Nobody could be a better subject for my interview- a different country altogether with a plethora of varied cultures and all of them in stark contrast with our own! Before I knew I was at his doorstep with my stationary, Dictaphone and artillery of questions I had framed on my way. To my disappointment, the going was not destined to be smooth. My friend's grandma is a very shy and reserved lady and she felt a bit awkward and uncomfortabl e when I approached her with my request. To start with, she just couldn't comprehend as to why someone would want to interview her and believed that she had nothing worthy enough to talk about. She also looked quite intimidated by my Dictaphone and elaborate stationary. After an hour of persuasion, pleading and begging she consented but only if I promised to safeguard her anonymity. Therefore, hereon I am going to call her "Gran". After a "warm up" session of friendly chit- chat; she gradually opened up and let me into her life story. Today, for me she was not a friend's grandmother but a woman who represented her entire community and whose words and opinions I was probably going to generalize to a whole population. I read quite bit about the plight of woman in India during yesteryears and the oppression the faced, so I decided to probe her on the issue. Gran turned 70 this summer. She was born to an average marwadi Indian family in early 1940's and raised among two younger brothers. Her childhood saw the period when India and Pakistan were undergoing a partition. She did school till about fifth grade and then was forced to drop out because her parents could not afford to send three children to school and since they felt it was more important to educate a male child , she was the obvious choice for sacrifice. Girls were at that time never really considered a permanent member of the family since they married and moved out to their husbands house, thus investing on them in any way seemed to make no sense to parents. She however is self-educating herself out of her brother's textbooks whenever she could. "I simply loved math's, I think I would have made a good teacher!" she says with a glint in her eyes. She was barely into her teenage ( which was common in 1950's) when she was married to a guy she had never seen or known and within a day her life took drastic turn - a whole new family, an unfamiliar city, a stranger she was supposed to call "husband" and spend the rest of her life with! . It was not long before it dawned upon her that her in-laws had demanded a huge amount in cash and kind to accept her as their daughter -in -law. These demands kept increasing in frequency and outrageousness and her family had no choice but to oblige because a woman abandoned by her husband and her family ha

Online Classes versus Traditional Classes Essay Example for Free

Online Classes versus Traditional Classes Essay Technology and education has given students many choices in how they obtain their education such as online classes. There have been numerous discussions recently about the success of online learning. The success of the online classes versus traditional classes is based upon the uniqueness of each individual way of learning. Online classes and traditional classes provide flexibility, direct communication and course materials. Studies have shown that online classes can be successful and that on average most students perform better than being in a traditional classroom. The argument of online classes and traditional classes; which is better than the other has many exceptional differences. One is the discussion of how does a person learn: is he a visual, auditory or kinesthetic learner? A visual leaner needs written materials, exercises and graphics. An auditory learner has to hear it, repeat it and needs to have a discussion. A kinesthetic learner needs real life simulations, hands on demonstration and needs to see how the principle works. Visual learners and kinesthetic learners most likely would be more successful in online courses because of the atmosphere it provides. Auditory learners would need to have traditional classes which would provide the best learning opportunity for their learning style. There are cases that individuals do not know how they learn best; an assessment should be given in the situation. The second discussion is flexibility. Online classes and traditional classes both can be just as flexible as the other. Online classes may seem more flexible but depending on the class the deadlines of each assignment may be very time consuming. Online classes sometimes provide more work than traditional classes. Traditional classes can be flexible due to the times that you select to take the classes. Schools are providing more night classes and early morning classes for the working and family-oriented students. Traditional classes provide more lecturing and sometimes more hands on in order to teach the concepts. The third discussion is communication. Online classes communicate by sending  and receiving emails. Some classes have chat rooms for discussions which provide the students opportunities to enrich their understanding of the course or subject being discussed. It also allows those individuals that normally would not speak in discussions to express their thoughts. The instant transfer of material is convenient for the students and professors to communicate. A traditional class allows students to verbally exchange ideas and ask questions directly to the professors. Sometimes this environment does not allow the students to fully express themselves due to time constraints. Some people feel that there are communication barriers in a face to face classroom setting due to time and class structure. (Anderson) One of the most important debates between the two classes is the course materials. The question has been asked if the online course is giving adequate material to teach an individual a lesson. Studies show that online professors give more than enough resources to express the subject and also gives practice graded material to ensure that the student understands. Traditional classes have been accused of doing the opposite and taking for granted that the students are in their presence and extra resources are sometimes a rarity. Online classes allow a person to minimize their distractions and it gives them the ability to fully concentrate on the material they are presented with. A person that enrolls in an online course should be self-motivated in order to be in an environment that requires the individual to monitor themselves and be responsible to handle the course as if it was a traditional course. (Kassop) Online courses provide the ability to be accessible at all times but the work that is required should be quality work. The students’ writing ability will enhance because this is their only form of communication. (Kassop) The professors do not expect students to procrastinate because of the accessibility but the possibility is there. The professors of these courses expect more from the online students since there are not time restraints. Online students have the ability to form small groups to relate to because the workload in online course is difficult. The workload is believed to be difficult be cause of the apparent reason of teaching themselves. Traditional classes allow students social interaction which is a vital piece for many students. There is a set amount of time in a classroom setting and there is limited one on one interaction with the professor. Professors have the ability to read their students body language to assure them if the material or concept is being understood by his or her students. Traditional classes also allow students to get behind if they miss a day or an assignment. The traditional classroom allows the students to strengthen various areas of their social skills such as verbally expressing themselves in classroom discussions. There are differences and similarities in online courses and traditional courses. Throughout are reading and research there can be two conclusions: 1. Online courses are better than traditional courses if the individual is discipline to take the course. 2. Online courses and traditional courses are just as good as the other because they both have the same goals and are achieving the goals to the students that are willing to receive. Works Cited Anderson, Terry, Elloumi, Fathi Theory and Practice of Online Learning (eds.) (2003) http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book Angiello, Roanne. Study Looks at Online Learning vs. Traditional Instruction. Education Digest 76.2 (2010): 56-59. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 30 Nov. 2010. Diaz, D.P., Cartnal. R.B. Students learning styles in two classes: Online distance learning and equivalent on-campus. College Teaching 47(4), 130-135 Kassop, Mark. The Technology Source. May/June 2003. 6 August 2011

Shylock as Helpless Victim in The Merchant of Venice :: Merchant of Venice Essays

Shylock as Helpless Victim in The Merchant of Venice      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1594 the Earl of Essex, an English Nobleman who lived during the Elizabethan period in England, was actively involved in the persecution and trials of Roderigo Lopez.   Lopez was a Jew of Portuguese descent, who was wrongly accused of attempting to poison the Queen of England.   Lopez, being the Queen's royal physician, was in no position to defend himself once he was accused.   Essex, who provided the evidence also presided over the trial of Lopez, leaving Lopez little chance of survival.   The innocent Jew was hanged, drawn, and quartered in Tyburn, England for all to witness.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The story of Roderigo Lopez is similar to the story of Shylock, although, Palmer tells us "It is not suggested that Shakespeare in portraying Shylock, had any political or social intentions" ( 112-13).   Both Jews were placed in time where "anti-Semitism was in fashion" (Palmer 113), and both thrown into court where they would be tried unjustly.   The story of Roderigo Lopez sets the tone for The Merchant of Venice.   Lopez' incident occurred in 1594, The Merchant of Venice was written only two years later.   Anti-Semitism was prevalent during Shakespeares' time, and therefore we must understand that it was as easy for him to make a Jewish man the villain as it would be for us to make a Nazi the villain.      According to Sylvan Barnet "The Merchant of Venice [shows] the broad outline of a comedy (not merely a play with jests, but a play that ends happily). . . the villain in the comedy must be entirely villainous, or, rather, comically villainous; he cannot for a moment gain the audience's sympathy" (1). Shylock has often been portrayed as the villain in The Merchant of Venice.   From being more concerned with his ducats rather than his daughter, to demanding his pound of flesh, Shylock fits perfectly into the mold of the villain.   However, with   reference to Barnet's comment "he cannot for a moment gain the audience's sympathy" (1), Shylock oversteps the boundaries of his villainous character. The audience cannot and would not have rooted for Shylock during Shakespeare's lifetime, yet, now we do.   Shylock is merely a victim of anti-Semitism.

Preliminary Research Design

Individual Research Project-Part 1 Godfrey Boyd American Intercontinental University Abstract There are theoretical and philosophical differences between â€Å"formal research† and â€Å"business proposals†. The advantages and disadvantages related to both can be a benefit depending upon the problem studied. Research is not fully understood in business. This paper will attempt to highlight reasons for limited utilization of research in business. Small businesses are less likely to conduct marketing research. Amy E. Knaup, an economist with the Office of Employment statistics, Bureau of Labor Statistics reported in 2005, 44% of all new business failed in the first 2 years. Individual Research Project-Preliminary Research Design In business, formal research and business proposals have significant differences and some similarities. It is very important to understand the purposes and goals of each. What are some commonalities? Research and business proposals have similar components. Backround information must be identified for both formal research and the business proposal. (American Journal of Small Business, Vol. IX, No. 4, Spring 1985. ) When someone conducts formal research or a business proposal, they have similar goals. Research and business proposals are conducted to find solutions, or solve problems. What are some differences? A formal research proposal differs significantly. Both proposals may appear similar. The purpose of formal research is mainly to find data to solve problems or help businesses make improved decisions on daily operations, or use of the best product. Apple’s iPod was a huge financial success in the early to middle 2000s. In 2008, iPod sales dropped significantly. (Business Week). Apple introduced and upgraded the iPod after a significant market study indicated that the economy and practicality of use were indicators of decreased iPod sales. The business proposal will focus more on the product and make it more successful. The attitude toward market research from small businesses is also a possible reason for businesses failing in less than two years. (Barnes Journal of Small Busienss Management). The formal research problem can focus on problems that sociological, and present clear concepts. Theory is also a hallmark of formal research. The problem studied and evaluated can be compared to previous research. Business proposals are more time sensitive. One of the goals of the business proposal is to research and find a solution to why a product is not doing well in a particular market. Time is of essence in business in order for the business to be successful. The formal research may not have a time constraint but the goal is to find a solution or solve a problem. What are some capabilities of one in contrast with the capabilities of the other? Formal research has the capability to pinpoint data through correct analysis. Hypotheses are validated through appropriate statistical analysis. Business proposals often suggest new products or services with the goal being to make money for the business. The formal research study has the capability to approach the issue theoretically and suggest a practical solution in just what to do to make money. A formal research study will provide valuable conclusions and insight. Formal research highlights complexities, context and emphasizes research. Rigor is the result of carefully collected data and strong accurate investigations. Formal research has to have testability. This means that data was collected correctly and sample sizes were adequate. A capability of a business proposal is the proposal can be done in relatively shorter time period. The business proposal will focus on a product or a business related problem that needs a solution in order to make money. Method Participant (subject) characteristics Sampling procedures Sample size, power, and precision Measures and covariates Research design Experimental manipulations or interventions Results Recruitment Statistics and data analysis Ancillary analyses Participant flow Intervention or manipulation fidelity Baseline data Adverse events Discussion References

The Host Chapter 19: Abandoned

Who is the Seeker in black? Why is it still searching?† Jared's shout was deafening, echoing at me from all sides. I hid behind my hands, waiting for the first blow. â€Å"Ah-Jared?† Ian murmured. â€Å"Maybe you should let me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Stay out of it!† Ian's voice got closer, and the rocks grated as he tried to follow Jared into the small space that was already too full. â€Å"Can't you see it's too scared to talk? Leave it alone for a sec -â€Å" I heard something scrape the floor as Jared moved, and then a thud. Ian cursed. I peered through my fingers to see that Ian was no longer visible and Jared had his back to me. Ian spit and groaned. â€Å"That's twice,† he growled, and I understood that the punch meant for me had been diverted by Ian's interference. â€Å"I'm ready to go for three,† Jared muttered, but he turned back around to face me, bringing light with him; he'd grabbed the lamp with the hand that had struck Ian. The cave seemed almost brilliant after so much darkness. Jared spoke to me again, scrutinizing my face in the new illuminations, making each word a sentence. â€Å"Who. Is. The. Seeker.† I dropped my hands and stared into his pitiless eyes. It bothered me that someone else had suffered for my silence-even someone who had once tried to kill me. This was not how torture was supposed to work. Jared's expression wavered as he read the change in mine. â€Å"I don't have to hurt you,† he said quietly, not as sure of himself. â€Å"But I do have to know the answer to my question.† This wasn't even the right question-not a secret I was in any way bound to protect. â€Å"Tell me,† he insisted, his eyes tight with frustration and deep unhappiness. Was I truly a coward? I would rather have believed that I was-that my fear of pain was stronger than anything else. The real reason I opened my mouth and spoke was so much more pathetic. I wanted to please him, this human who hated me so fiercely. â€Å"The Seeker,† I began, my voice rough and hoarse; I hadn't spoken in a long time. He interrupted, impatient. â€Å"We already know it's a Seeker.† â€Å"No, not just any Seeker,† I whispered. â€Å"My Seeker.† â€Å"What do you mean, your Seeker?† â€Å"Assigned to me, following me. She's the reason -† I caught myself just before I spoke the word that would have meant our death. Just before I could say we. The ultimate truth that he would see as the ultimate lie-playing on his deepest wishes, his deepest pain. He would never see that it was possible for his wish to be true. He would only see a dangerous liar looking out through the eyes he'd loved. â€Å"The reason?† he prompted. â€Å"The reason I ran away,† I breathed. â€Å"The reason I came here.† Not entirely true, but not entirely a lie, either. Jared stared at me, his mouth half-open, as he tried to process this. From the corner of my eye, I could see that Ian was peering through the hole again, his vivid blue eyes wide with surprise. There was blood, dark on his pale lips. â€Å"You ran away from a Seeker? But you're one of them!† Jared struggled to compose himself, to get back to his interrogation. â€Å"Why would it follow you? What did it want?† I swallowed; the sound seemed unnaturally loud. â€Å"She wanted you. You and Jamie.† His expression hardened. â€Å"And you were trying to lead it here?† I shook my head. â€Å"I didn't†¦ I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  How could I explain it? He'd never accept the truth. â€Å"What?† â€Å"I†¦ didn't want to tell her. I don't like her.† He blinked, confused again. â€Å"Don't you all have to like everyone?† â€Å"We're supposed to,† I admitted, coloring with shame. â€Å"Who did you tell about this place?† Ian asked over Jared's shoulder. Jared scowled but kept his eyes on my face. â€Å"I couldn't tell-I didn't know†¦ I just saw the lines. The lines on the album. I drew them for the Seeker†¦ but we didn't know what they were. She still thinks they're a road map.† I couldn't seem to stop talking. I tried to make the words come slower, to protect myself from a slip. â€Å"What do you mean you didn't know what they were? You're here.† Jared's hand flexed toward me but dropped before it closed the small distance. â€Å"I†¦ I was having trouble with my†¦ with the†¦ with her memory. I didn't understand†¦ I couldn't access everything. There were walls. That's why the Seeker was assigned to me, waiting for me to unlock the rest.† Too much, too much. I bit my tongue. Ian and Jared exchanged a look. They'd never heard anything like this before. They didn't trust me, but they wanted so desperately to believe it was possible. They wanted it too much. That made them fear. Jared's voice whipped out with a sudden harshness. â€Å"Were you able to access my cabin?† â€Å"Not for a long time.† â€Å"And then you told the Seeker.† â€Å"No.† â€Å"No? Why not?† â€Å"Because†¦ by the time I could remember it†¦ I didn't want to tell her.† Ian's eyes were frozen wide. Jared's voice changed, became low, almost tender. So much more dangerous than the shouting. â€Å"Why didn't you want to tell her?† My jaw locked hard. It was not the secret, but still, it was a secret he would have to beat out of me. In this moment, my determination to hold my tongue had less to do with self-preservation than it did with a stupid, grudging kind of pride. I would not tell this man who despised me that I loved him. He watched the defiance flash in my eyes, and he seemed to understand what it would take to get this answer. He decided to skip it-or maybe to come back to it later, save it for last, in case I wouldn't be able to answer any more questions when he was done with me. â€Å"Why weren't you able to access everything? Is that†¦ normal?† This question was very dangerous, too. For the first time so far, I told an outright lie. â€Å"She fell a long way. The body was damaged.† Lying did not come easily to me; this lie fell flat. Jared and Ian both reacted to the false note. Jared's head cocked to the side; one of Ian's ink black eyebrows rose. â€Å"Why isn't this Seeker giving up like the rest?† Ian asked. I was abruptly exhausted. I knew they could keep this up all night, would keep this up all night if I continued to answer, and eventually I would make a mistake. I slumped against the wall and closed my eyes. â€Å"I don't know,† I whispered. â€Å"She's not like other souls. She's†¦ annoying.† Ian laughed once-a startled sound. â€Å"And you-are you like other†¦ souls?† Jared asked. I opened my eyes and stared at him wearily for a long moment. What a stupid question, I thought. Then I shut my eyes tight, buried my face against my knees, and wrapped my arms around my head. Either Jared understood that I was done speaking or his body was complaining too loudly to be ignored. He grunted a few times as he squeezed himself out of the opening of my cave, taking the lamp with him, and then groaned quietly as he stretched. â€Å"That was unexpected,† Ian whispered. â€Å"Lies, of course,† Jared whispered back. I could just barely make out their words. They probably didn't realize how the sound echoed back to me in here. â€Å"Only†¦ I can't quite figure out what it wants us to believe-where it's trying to lead us.† â€Å"I don't think it's lying. Well, except the one time. Did you notice?† â€Å"Part of the act.† â€Å"Jared, when have you ever met a parasite who could lie about anything? Except a Seeker, of course.† â€Å"Which it must be.† â€Å"Are you serious?† â€Å"It's the best explanation.† â€Å"She-it is the furthest thing from a Seeker I've ever seen. If a Seeker had any idea how to find us, it would have brought an army.† â€Å"And they wouldn't have found anything. But she-it got in, didn't it?† â€Å"It's almost been killed half a dozen -â€Å" â€Å"Yet it's still breathing, isn't it?† They were quiet for a long time. So long that I started to think about moving out of the cramped ball I was curled in, but I didn't want to make any noise by lying down. I wished Ian would leave so I could sleep. The adrenaline left me so worn out when it drained from my system. â€Å"I think I'm going to go talk to Jeb,† Ian eventually whispered. â€Å"Oh, that's a great idea.† Jared's voice was thick with sarcasm. â€Å"Do you remember that first night? When it jumped between you and Kyle? That was bizarre.† â€Å"It was just trying to find a way to stay alive, to escape†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"By giving Kyle the go-ahead to kill her-it? Good plan.† â€Å"It worked.† â€Å"Jeb's gun worked. Did she know he was on his way?† â€Å"You're overthinking this, Ian. That's what it wants.† â€Å"I don't think you're right. I don't know why†¦ but I don't think she wants us to think about her at all.† I heard Ian get to his feet. â€Å"You know what's really twisted?† he muttered, his voice no longer a whisper. â€Å"What's that?† â€Å"I felt guilty-guilty as hell-watching her flinch away from us. Seeing the black marks on her neck.† â€Å"You can't let it get to you like that.† Jared was suddenly disturbed. â€Å"It's not human. Don't forget that.† â€Å"Just because she isn't human, do you think that means she doesn't feel pain?† Ian asked as his voice faded into the distance. â€Å"That she doesn't feel just like a girl who's been beaten-beaten by us?† â€Å"Get a hold of yourself,† Jared hissed after him. â€Å"See you around, Jared.† Jared didn't relax for a long time after Ian left; he paced for a while, back and forth in front of the cave, and then sat on the mat, blocking my light, and muttered incomprehensibly to himself. I gave up waiting for him to fall asleep, and stretched out as well as I could on the bowl-like floor. He jumped when my movement made noise, and then started muttering to himself again. â€Å"Guilty,† he grumbled in scathing tones. â€Å"Letting it get to him. Just like Jeb, like Jamie. Can't let this go on. Stupid to let it live.† Goose bumps rose on my arms, but I tried to ignore them. If I panicked every time he thought about killing me, I'd never have a moment's peace. I turned onto my stomach to bend my spine in the other direction, and he jerked again and then lapsed into silence. I was sure he was still brooding when I finally drifted to sleep. When I woke up, Jared was sitting on the mat where I could see him, elbows on knees, his head leaning against one fist. I didn't feel as if I'd slept more than an hour or two, but I was too sore to try to go back to sleep right away. Instead, I fretted about Ian's visit, worrying that Jared would work even harder to keep me secluded after Ian's strange reaction. Why couldn't Ian have kept his mouth shut about feeling guilty? If he knew he was capable of guilt, why did he go around strangling people in the first place? Melanie was irritated with Ian, too, and nervous about the outcome of his qualms. Our worries were interrupted after just a few minutes. â€Å"‘S just me,† I heard Jeb call. â€Å"Don't get worked up.† Jared cocked the gun. â€Å"Go ahead and shoot me, kid. Go ahead.† The sound of Jeb's voice got closer with every word. Jared sighed and put the gun down. â€Å"Please leave.† â€Å"Need to talk to you,† Jeb said, huffing as he sat down across from Jared. â€Å"Hey, there,† he said in my direction, nodding. â€Å"You know how much I hate that,† Jared muttered. â€Å"Yep.† â€Å"Ian already told me about the Seekers -â€Å" â€Å"I know. I was just talkin' with him about it.† â€Å"Great. Then what do you want?† â€Å"Not so much what I want. It's what everybody needs. We're running low on just about everything. We need a real comprehensive supply run.† â€Å"Oh,† Jared muttered; this topic was not what he'd been tensed for. After a short pause he said, â€Å"Send Kyle.† â€Å"Okay,† Jeb said easily, bracing himself against the wall to rise again. Jared sighed. It seemed his suggestion had been a bluff. He folded as soon as Jeb took him up on it. â€Å"No. Not Kyle. He's too†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Jeb chuckled. â€Å"Almost got us in some real hot water the last time he was out alone, didn't he? Not one to think things through. Ian, then?† â€Å"He thinks things through too much.† â€Å"Brandt?† â€Å"He's no good for the long trips. Starts getting panicked a few weeks in. Makes mistakes.† â€Å"Okay, you tell me who, then.† The seconds passed and I heard Jared suck in a breath now and then, each time as if he was about to give Jeb an answer, but then he just exhaled and said nothing. â€Å"Ian and Kyle together?† Jeb asked. â€Å"Maybe they could balance each other out.† Jared groaned. â€Å"Like the last time? Okay, okay, I know it has to be me.† â€Å"You're the best,† Jeb agreed. â€Å"You changed our lives when you showed up here.† Melanie and I nodded to ourselves; this didn't surprise either of us. Jared is magic. Jamie and I were perfectly safe while Jared's instincts guided us; we never came close to getting caught. If it had been Jared in Chicago, I'm sure he would have made it out fine. Jared jerked his shoulder toward me. â€Å"What about†¦?† â€Å"I'll keep an eye on her when I can. And I'll expect you to take Kyle with you. That oughta help.† â€Å"That won't be enough-Kyle gone and you keeping an eye on her when you can. She†¦ it won't last long.† Jeb shrugged. â€Å"I'll do my best. That's all I can do.† Jared started to shake his head slowly back and forth. â€Å"How long can you stay down here?† Jeb asked him. â€Å"I don't know,† Jared whispered. There was a long silence. After a few minutes, Jeb began whistling tunelessly. Finally, Jared let out a huge breath that I hadn't realized he'd been holding. â€Å"I'll leave tonight.† The words were slow, full of resignation but also relief. His voice changed slightly, got a little less defensive. It was as though he was making the transition back to who he'd been here before I showed up. Letting one responsibility slide from his shoulders and putting another, more welcome one in its place. He was giving up on keeping me alive, letting nature-or rather mob justice-take its course. When he returned, and I was dead, he wouldn't hold anyone responsible. He would not mourn. All this I could hear in those three words. I knew the human exaggeration for sorrow-a broken heart. Melanie remembered speaking the phrase herself. But I'd always thought of it as a hyperbole, a traditional description for something that had no real physiological link, like a green thumb. So I wasn't expecting the pain in my chest. The nausea, yes, the swelling in my throat, yes, and, yes, the tears burning in my eyes. But what was the ripping sensation just under my rib cage? It made no logical sense. And it wasn't just ripping, but twisting and pulling in different directions. Because Melanie's heart broke, too, and it was a separate sensation, as if we'd grown another organ to compensate for our twin awarenesses. A double heart for a double mind. Twice the pain. He's leaving, she sobbed. We'll never see him again. She didn't question the fact that we were going to die. I wanted to weep with her, but someone had to keep her head. I bit my hand to hold the moan back. â€Å"That's probably best,† Jeb said. â€Å"I'll need to get some things organized†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Already Jared's mind was far, far away from this claustrophobic corridor. â€Å"I'll take over here, then. Have a safe trip.† â€Å"Thanks. Guess I'll see you when I see you, Jeb.† â€Å"Guess so.† Jared handed the gun back to Jeb, stood up, and brushed absently at the dust on his clothes. Then he was off, hurrying down the hall with his familiar quick step, his mind on other things. Not one glance in my direction, not one more thought for my fate. I listened to the fading sound of his footsteps until they were gone. Then, forgetting Jeb's existence, I pressed my face into my hands and sobbed.

Israels Right to Self-Defense

Israels Right to Self-Defense Free Online Research Papers The present Article examines the legality of Israels military intervention in Lebanon in the summer of 2006 from a jus ad bellum perspective. More specifically, it examines whether Israel could lawfully invoke the right of self-defense, taking account of the factual circumstances, the justification given by Israel and the reaction of the international community. The Article focuses mainly on the controversy regarding the legality of self-defense against attacks by non-state actors. In this regard, it is noted that while the restrictions on this type of self-defense may have been eased in recent years, Israels intervention should not be considered a new precedent towards a broad right of self-defense against terrorist groups or other types of non-state actors. I. Introduction On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah militants attacked an Israeli military patrol, capturing two soldiers and killing three. Israel subsequently invoked the right of self-defense and engaged in military operations to retrieve the captured soldiers while carrying out air strikes against several targets in Lebanon, such as the Rafik Hariri International Airport in Beirut. The incident escalated in the following days, when aerial bombardments by the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) were answered by a rainstorm of Katyusha rockets targeting Haifa and other cities in northern Israel. As the IDF crossed the Blue Line, the United Nations (U.N.)-monitored border demarcation between the two countries, Israeli troops and Hezbollah militants clashed in the worst fighting in southern Lebanon since 1982. For over a month the world held its breath until, finally, a frail ceasefire was put in place at the order of the U.N. Security Council on August 14, 2006. [FN1] In all, some 116 Israeli soldiers and 43 Isra eli civilians lost their lives between July 12, 2006 and August 14, 2006. On the Lebanese side, some 1,109 peoplemostly civilians were killed, as well as twenty-eight Lebanese soldiers. [FN2] Scores of people on both sides were injured or forced to flee their homes. The dramatic events of July and August 2006 raise important questions of jus ad bellum regarding the legality of self-defense in response to attacks by non-state actors. [FN3] Chief among these questions is whether state involvement in these attacks is needed to trigger Article 51 of the U.N. Charter, [FN4] which spells out the right of self-defense and, if so, what degree of state involvement is required. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has addressed this question in its advisory opinion on the legality of the â€Å"Palestinian Wall† [FN5] and in its judgment in the Case Concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Dem. Rep. Congo v. Uganda), [FN6] but it has been notoriously unable to provide a coherent answer to this polemic, to the discontent of some of its judges. Legal scholars are highly divided on the topic, although a growing number of authors have suggested that the legal restrictions on self-defense *267 ought to be eased. [FN7] States, on the other hand, do not seem to stumble over these thorny questions. Indeed, as they did in response to the 9/11 attacks, many states supported Israels self-defense claim without further ado, notwithstanding the fact that many were critical of the disproportionate character of Israeli attacks and the heavy loss of civilian life on the Lebanese side. Against this background, the present Article assesses the merits of Israels invocation of Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. Given the fact that the initial attack emanated from Hezbollah and not from the Lebanese government, it is hard to fit Israels recourse to force into the traditional legal parameters of self-defense. We will therefore not only examine the legality of Israels actions but also their significance for the development of jus ad bellum, taking into account the reaction of the international community. I start from the widely accepted premise that custom, constituted of state practice and opinio iuris, is crucial for the determination of the scope of the legal prohibition on the use of force. [FN8] Thus, Israels state practice in the present case will be tested against the opinio iuris expressed by Israel, Lebanon and numerous other states in the debates of the U.N. Security Council. [FN9] In the end, while the *268 international community generally affirmed the applicabi lity of the right of self-defense to Israels actions, I argue that this should not be interpreted as creating a broad legal right to exercise self-defense against attacks by non-state actors. Rather, given the circumstances in Lebanon, Article 9 of the Draft Articles on State Responsibility (Draft Articles) [FN10] may provide an alternative route to legally justify Israels recourse to self-defense under Article 51, while leaving in place the need for a certain degree of state involvement in armed attacks. The present analysis does not address the legality of Israels actions under international humanitarian law, [FN11] nor does it deal with the parallel military action in the Gaza strip during the same period. Part II summarizes the events of July 12, 2006 as well as the responses of Israel, Lebanon and the wider international community. Part III examines whether the conditions for the recourse to self-defense were met and focuses in particular on the question of whether and to what extent â€Å"armed attacks† require the involvement of a state to legally justify self-defense under Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. Part IV contains concluding remarks. II. The Outbreak of Hostilities and Reaction of the International Community On the morning of July 12, 2006, Hezbollah fighters attacked an Israeli border patrol between the towns of Zarit and Shtula. [FN12] Making use of a â€Å"dead zone† in the border fence, not visible from any of the IDF outlook posts, they crossed the border and ambushed an Israeli patrol with a combination of pre-positioned explosives and anti-tank missiles. Simultaneously, Hezbollah also launched a diversionary attack, firing Katyusha rockets and mortars at Israeli military positions and border villages. The latter attack wounded five civilians. In the ambush itself, three Israeli soldiers were killed, two were wounded and two were abducted. The IDF responded with artillery fire, air strikes, and a naval bombardment. Moreover, in its first military ground operation in *269 southern Lebanon since the withdrawal of Israeli troops in 2000, the IDF summoned a mission to rescue the captured soldiers and engaged in fierce fighting with Hezbollah gunmen. Shortly after the Zarit-Shtula incident, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert made a statement in which he argued that the Hezbollah attack was â€Å"not a terrorist attack, but the action of a sovereign state that attacked Israel for no reason and without provocation.† [FN13] He pointed out that Hezbollah is a member of the Lebanese government, stressing that Lebanon was responsible for this â€Å"act of war . . . on the sovereign territory . . . of the state of Israel† and would bear the consequences of its actions. [FN14] In accordance with the reporting obligation of Article 51 of the U.N. Charter, Israel submitted a letter to the Security Council, stating that â€Å"[r]esponsibility for this belligerent act lies with the Government of Lebanon, from whose territory these acts have been launched into Israel. Responsibility also lies with the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Syrian Arab Republic, which support and embrace those who carried out this at tack.† [FN15] The statement denounced the â€Å"ineptitude and inaction† of the Government of Lebanon to exercise its jurisdiction over its own territory, despite calls thereto in several Security Council resolutions. The statement goes on to reiterate that Israel â€Å"reserves the right to . . . exercise its right of self-defense when an armed attack is launched against a Member of the United Nations.† [FN16] To this end, it would take â€Å"appropriate actions to secure the release of the kidnapped soldiers and bring an end to the shelling that terrorize[d] [its] citizens.† [FN17] The next day, however, Lebanon called for an urgent meeting of the Security Council to discuss the crisis. [FN18] Lebanon declared that it was â€Å"not aware of the events that occurred and are occurring on the international Lebanese border† and did not endorse them. [FN19] Lebanon refuted responsibility for the actions of Hezbollah and strongly condemned â€Å"the Israeli aggressions that targeted and are targeting the vital and civil Lebanese infrastructure.† [FN20] *270 Israels actions against Lebanon were only discussed in the margin during the Security Council meeting of July 13, 2006, which instead focused on the situation in the Gaza strip at the time (a draft resolution was defeated due to a United States veto). [FN21] However, the next day the Council did convene to discuss the Israeli-Lebanese situation. [FN22] During the debate it became clear that most of the fifteen Council members supported Israels invocation of self-defense in principlethe United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Slovakia, Greece, France, Peru, and Argentina all referred to Israels right of self-defenseeven though they refrained from speaking out on Lebanons possible responsibility for the Hezbollah attacks. Only China and Qatar identified Israels response as â€Å"armed aggression† against Lebanon. [FN23] On the other hand, most Council members also showed sympathy for the Lebanese authorities and stressed the need for the Lebanese government to ex ercise full control over all of its territory. Virtually all Council members expressed concern at the targeting of civilians and civilian infrastructure in Lebanon and called for restraint, with several countries, such as Russia and France, expressly condemning the disproportionate nature of Israels campaign. [FN24] In the following days, Israels claim continued to receive implicit and explicit support from several corners, although often in combination with deep concern at the loss of civilian life. Thus, on July 16, 2006, the Group of Eight (G8), meeting in St. Petersburg, issued a declaration acknowledging Israels right to self-defense while calling for restraint. [FN25] Two days later, the U.S. Senate adopted a resolution â€Å"[c]ondemning Hezbollah and Hamas and their state sponsors and supporting Israels exercise of its right to self-defense.† [FN26] Likewise, Australian Prime Minister John Howard affirmed that Hezbollah had forced Israel into self-defense. [FN27] Even U.N. Secretary-General Annan, albeit highly critical of Israels excessive and disproportionate use of force, acknowledged Israels right to defend itself under Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. [FN28] The open debate in the Security Council of July 21, 2006 shows a similar picture. Notwithstanding deep concern or outright condemnation of the disproportionate use of force, a majority of participants agreed as a matter of principle that Israel had the right to defend itself against the attacks by Hezbollah. [FN29] This position was held by the United States, the twenty-five *271 member states of the European Union, Japan, Russia, Canada, Australia, Norway, Switzerland, Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Guatemala, and Ghana. On the other hand, the twenty-two member League of Arab States [FN30] condemned the Israeli aggression, as did China, Iran, Cuba, and Venezuela. Other countries, such as India and Indonesia, condemned the disproportionate character of Israels action, without addressing the self-defense question. [FN31] Thus, it appears the international community steadily grew more critical of Israels use of force against Lebanon, especially after the killing of four U.N. peacekeepers in an Israeli artillery and aerial attack on July 25, 2006 [FN32] and the Qana massacre [FN33] of July 30, 2006 in which twenty-eight Lebanese civilians lost their lives. Still, a majority of states, including eleven out of fifteen Security Council members, backed the invocation of Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. [FN34] Let us now turn to the merits of the casus belli. A. Israels Self-defense Claim An examination of Israels self-defense claim can be broken down in three parts. First, we must establish whether the Zarit-Shtula incident qualifies as an â€Å"armed attack† in the sense of the U.N. Charters Article 51 ratione materiae. This means that we must assess whether Hezbollahs acts were â€Å"of such gravity† that they would qualify as an armed attack if they had been carried out by regular armed forces. Secondand this is the most difficult point to tackle from a legal perspectivewe must look into the Lebanese governments involvement in the activities of Hezbollah to verify whether the incident qualifies as an armed attack ratione personae. A third and final aspect concerns the necessity and proportionality of Israels response. A preliminary remark must be made. Several officials and media sources have questioned Israels motives in going to war against Lebanon. Some have suggested that Israel had long pre-planned its military campaign and was waiting to be provoked; others have pointed out that Israel pursued *272 wider goals than merely the return of its abducted soldiers. [FN35] Whether or not these suggestions are true is irrelevant from a jus ad bellum perspective. This follows from the Nicaragua case, where Nicaragua argued that the U.S. justification of self-defense merely served as a pretext for its contested activities. The Court rejected this argument, declaring that self-defense can be legally invoked if the appropriate conditions are met â€Å"even though there may be possibility of an additional motive, one perhaps even more decisive.† [FN36] Hence the answer: yes, self-defense may be a pretext, as long as the basic conditions are met. But were these conditions met on July 12, 2006? 1. Ratione Materiae Our first question concerns whether the â€Å"scale and effects† of the initial attack by Hezbollah were sufficient to trigger the right of self-defense. In the Nicaragua case, the ICJ famously distinguished between the â€Å"most grave† forms of the use of force from other â€Å"less grave† forms. [FN37] Only the former qualify as â€Å"armed attacks† in the sense of Article 51. This is also evident from the ICJs reference to the Definition of Aggression, [FN38] adopted by the U.N. General Assembly in 1974, which the Court used as a yardstick to determine the existence of an armed attack. [FN39] Articles 2 and 3(g) of the Definition require that armed force be of sufficient gravity to constitute aggression. [FN40] As a result, a de minimis threshold has to be reached. An armed attack must involve at least a use of force producing (or liable to produce) serious consequences, epitomized by territorial intrusions, human casualties or considerable destruction of property. [FN41] Use of force below this threshold may well trigger a states right to take countermeasures, but it does not justify recourse to self-defense. On the other hand, a single incident such as the mining of a single vessel may be sufficient to bring into play the inherent right of self-defense. [FN42] Single incidents may also be â€Å"accumulated† so as to determine whether the threshold has been reached. [FN43] In Nicaragua, the ICJ excluded â€Å"mere frontier incidents† from the concept of â€Å"armed attack.† [FN44] Many scholars criticized this distinction as *273 artificial, arguing that some â€Å"frontier incidents† may be trivial, while others may be extremely grave. [FN45] However, the concept of frontier incidents may be useful to avoid escalation of minor incidents. It does not a priori rule out the possibility that trans-border incursions could singly or collectively amount to armed attacks. The ICJ did not provide much guidance to distinguish mere frontier incidents from armed attacks, but only referred in general terms to â€Å"scale and effects† and circumstances and motivations. [FN46] The implication seems to be, as Gray notes, that â€Å"the Court would include within ‘frontier incident’ episodes where there was no intent to carry out an armed attack, including accidental incursions and incidents where officials disobeyed orders.â €  [FN47] Given this understanding, the premeditated and well-organized character of the Hezbollah ambush, the ongoing nature of the abduction, combined with diversionary rocket attacks suggest that this was a deliberate â€Å"armed attack† rather than a mere â€Å"incident.† Considering the serious consequences of the attackwhich included territorial intrusions, human casualties, and destruction of propertyone could argue that, even though it was a relatively small-scale event, the ratione materiae criterion was fulfilled. The outcome of this analysis would be different if one were to follow the alternate version of the incident, proclaimed by the Lebanese police and later by Hezbollah. According to this version, the Israeli soldiers were captured when Hezbollah attacked an Israeli commando force trying to infiltrate the village of Ayta ash-Shab, well inside Lebanese territory. [FN48] This account seems somewhat at odds with the apparently premeditated nature of Hezbollahs attac k. [FN49] All major news agencies, including Al Jazeera, as well as the European Union and the G8, have characterized the abduction as a â€Å"cross-border† attack. Likewise, the report of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) states that Hezbollah â€Å"crossed the Blue Line into Israel and attacked an IDF patrol,† [FN50] and Security Council Resolution 1701 speaks of â€Å"Hezbollahs attack on Israel.† [FN51] Therefore, we see that the answer to the question posed at the start of this section is that the attack by Hezbollah was sufficient to trigger the right to self-defense. *274 2. Ratione Personae The ratione personae aspect is more difficult to assess. The problem is that considerable controversy exists as to when attacks carried out by non-state actors qualify as â€Å"armed attacks† in the sense of Article 51. The text of the Article does not explicitly restrict the scope of â€Å"armed attacks† to acts of state agents, yet it has traditionally been interpreted in this way. [FN52] Thus, the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee long ago declared that â€Å"the words ‘armed attack’ clearly do not mean an incident created by an irresponsible group of individuals, but rather an attack by one state upon another.† [FN53] On the other hand, literature also suggests that self-defense can be exercised against attacks by non-state actors when there is a certain degree of state involvement in the attacks, a situation which is sometimes labeled â€Å"indirect military aggression.† [FN54] In addressing this controversy, the International Court of Justice has applied the reasoning of Article 3(g) of the Definition of Aggression, which was taken to reflect customary international law. Thus, the Court extended the notion of â€Å"armed attack† to â€Å"the sending by or on behalf of a state of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State of such gravity as to amount to (inter alia) an actual armed attack conducted by regular forces, or its substantial involvement therein.† [FN55] Nevertheless, the application and interpretation of this phrase has become increasingly contested. This is a consequence of evolutions in state practice, recent resolutions adopted by the Security Council, and, last but not least, subsequent ICJ jurisprudence. As a result, there are currently three broad lines of reasoning. [FN56] On the one hand, some argue that self-defense can only be exercised when attacks by non-state actors can be imputed to a State in accordance with established rules on state responsibility. On the other extreme, some argue that state involvement has become irrelevant and that one should only look at the gravity of the attack to determine the appropriateness of self-defense. In between, a third position claims that state involvement remains a precondition albeit under a lower threshold than that of state responsibility. Hereafter, we will examine these positions in the context of the Israeli-Lebanese conflict. It is argued that Israels actions fail to meet th e ratione personae threshold, not only if one sticks to the general rules on state *275 responsibility, but also when a somewhat lower state involvement standard is adopted. Subsequently, an alternative route is suggested to act against states failing to prevent cross-border attacks by non-state actors by falling back on a somewhat neglected rule of state responsibility, dealing with conduct carried out in the absence or default of official authorities. i. State responsibility As mentioned above, the ICJ in the Nicaragua case used Article 3(g) of the Definition of Aggression as a yardstick for the legality of self-defense against attacks by non-state actors. This article refers to the â€Å"sending by or on behalf of a State of armed bands, groups, irregulars or mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed force against another State . . . or its substantial involvement therein.† [FN57] Although the wording â€Å"sending by or on behalf of† seems to imply agency, the additional reference to â€Å"substantial involvement therein† suggests that this yardstickwhich the Court held to be part of the primary rules of the jus ad bellumis not necessarily identical to the secondary rules concerning state responsibility, but may actually be broader. Indeed, the phrase â€Å"substantial involvement† was the result of long debates regarding the degree of state involvement needed to establish â€Å"aggression.† [FN58] Some delegations w anted to include â€Å"support,† â€Å"acquiescence,† and â€Å"encouragement of organization† of armed bands. Others wanted to reserve â€Å"aggression† to cases of â€Å"open and active participation.† [FN59] The implication of the Courts reference to Article 3(g) therefore seems to be that self-defense may go beyond situations where attacks by non-state actors are imputable to a state and also covers situations where a state is â€Å"substantially involved† in their activities. At the same time, however, the ICJ took a narrow view of such involvement and discarded the idea that â€Å"the provision of weapons or logistical or other support† could amount to an armed attack. [FN60] Although the giving of sanctuary to non-state actors did not arise on the facts in Nicaragua, it is assumed that the Court implicitly rejected that acquiescence or the inability to control armed bands operating on a states territory could constitute an arme d attack. [FN61] In the end, the Courts narrow interpretation seemed to de facto limit self-defense to attacks that are actually attributable to states. This position was heavily attacked by Judge Schwebel and Judge Jennings as well as by several scholars. Judge Jennings, for example, pointed out that, â€Å"it becomes difficult to understand what it is, short of direct attack by a states own forces, that may not be done apparently without a lawful response in the form of . . . self-defence.† [FN62] *276 If ever there was a gap between the Courts interpretation of Article 3(g) of the Definition of Aggression and the rules on state responsibility, it seems to have been closed in two recent ICJ cases. Thus, in the Palestinian Wall advisory opinion, the Court stated that Article 51 U.N. Charter recognized, â€Å"the existence of an inherent right of self-defense in the case of armed attack by one State against another State.† [FN63] Since Israel had not claimed that the attacks it suffered were in fact â€Å"imputable to a foreign state,† the right of self-defense could not be invoked to justify the building of the â€Å"Palestinian Wall.† [FN64] And in DRC v. Uganda, the Court invoked the wording of Article 3(g) Definition of Aggression, albeit dropping the reference to â€Å"substantial involvement.† [FN65] The Court seemed to follow the view that the deplorable attacks against Uganda by armed groups acting from Congolese territory were due to the Demo cratic Republic of the Congos (DRC) inability to control events along its border and concluded that the attacks were â€Å"not attributable† to the DRC. Given the absence of state responsibility, the preconditions for the exercise of self-defense were deemed absent, meaning that the Court â€Å"did not need to enquire† whether Ugandas actions had abided by the standards of proportionality and necessity. Given the jurisprudence of the ICJ, it is little wonder that Israel traveled the road least contested and invoked state responsibility. Indeed, while reporting to the Security Council, Israel took the position that Lebanon was responsible for Hezbollahs attack and that, as a result, this was not a terrorist attack, but rather the action of a sovereign state. [FN66] If this were true, then there would be no doubt that Israel could lawfully invoke Article 51 of the U.N. Charter. However, one would first need to demonstrate that Hezbollahs actions could be attributed to the Lebanese government in accordance with the stringent rules on state responsibility, enshrined in the International Law Commissions authoritative Draft Articles on State Responsibility. [FN67] In principle, Draft Article 4 limits state responsibility to acts carried out by state organs exercising legislative, executive, judicial or other functions, as long as they are acting in their official capacity. [FN68] Draft Article 7 makes clear that this also covers occasions where agents exceed their authority or contravene their instructions. In this context, Israel emphasized the fact that Hezbollah is part of the Lebanese government. [FN69] Hezbollah has indeed participated as a political party in Lebanese elections since 1992 and at the time of the crisis it held fourteen seats in the 128-member Parliament. It was, *277 moreover, a minority partner in the Cabinet, where it held two minister posts (Energy and Water, and Labour). It had also endorsed a third Cabinet position, namely that of Fawzi Salloukh, minister for Foreign Affairs. Nevertheless, to conclude from this participation that the July 12 attack was carried out by state agents is not acceptable. The mere fact that Hezbollah held two minister posts obviously does not imply that all Hezbollah militants would become state agents. This might be different if Hezbollah were leading the government, as Hamas did at the time in the Occupied Palestinian Territories. In such a situation, one could argue that the military wing of Hezbollah would become an extension of the governments security apparatus, implying that its actions would be imputable in the sense of Draft Article 4. Yet, in the present context, Draft Article 4 does not apply. This means that we have to look at the exceptions to the rule that states are only responsible for acts of their organs. Three main exceptions exist. The first two are laid down in Draft Article 8, according to which the conduct of a person or a group of persons shall be considered an act of a state if the person or group of persons is in fact acting on the specific instructions of the state or is under the direction or control of the state in carrying out the conduct. [FN70] With regard to the latter exception, the ICJ suggested that the litmus test is the existence of â€Å"effective† control or direction. [FN71] The third exception deals with situations where a state explicitly acknowledges and adopts conduct by non-state actors as its own (Draft Article 11; both requirements have to be fulfilled cumulatively). This situation surfaced in the Tehran case where the ICJ held that the Iranian policy of placing pressure upon the United States by not ending the hostage-crisis in the U.S. embassy and various Iranian authorities compliance with this policy transformed the occupation of the U.S. embassy into acts of Iran. [FN72] None of these exceptions apply in the present situation. As the Secretary-General remarked, it was clear that the Lebanese government had no advanced knowledge of the attack. [FN73] The Lebanese government immediately distanced itself from Hezbollahs attack and informed the Security Council that it was not aware of the events and did not endorse them. [FN74] Moreover, whereas Israel accused Iran and Syria of â€Å"supporting and embracing† those who carried out the attack, it did not accuse Lebanon of supporting Hezbollah, let alone of â€Å"effectively controlling† Hezbollah. Instead, Israel merely spoke of Lebanons â€Å"ineptitude and inaction† in exercising jurisdiction over its own territory, blaming the government for not implementing Security Council Resolution *278 1559. [FN75] The latter resolution had called for the withdrawal of all foreign forces from Lebanon as well as the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias. [FN76] I t had partially been implemented as a result of the withdrawal of most Syrian forces from Lebanese territory. [FN77] However, the Lebanese government had failed to dismantle Hezbollah, thus allowing the country to become a â€Å"hotbed of violence and a cesspool of terrorism.† [FN78] Israel argued that it was compelled to act â€Å"not against Lebanon, but against the monster that Lebanon had allowed to hold it hostage.† [FN79] Like virtually all U.N. Members during the Security Council debates of July 14 and 31, Israel supported the position that the Lebanese government should extend its sovereign jurisdiction over the whole of its territory, a position that formed the basis for Resolution 1701. [FN80] In other words, the Lebanese government was not seen as the problem, but as part of the solution. Now that we have established that the July 12 attack was not imputable to the Lebanese government in the sense of Draft Articles 4, 8 or 11, does this mean that self-defense was excluded in the present context? If one adheres to the proposition that the exercise of self-defense against attacks by non-state actors requires state responsibility, the answer would at first sight be affirmative. However, the latter position is increasingly criticized for rendering self-defense against attacks by non-state actors virtually always impossible. [FN81] First, it is highly unlikely that a state would explicitly acknowledge an attack and adopt it as its own in the sense of Draft Article 11, knowing that doing so would make it the possible target of a counterattack. Second, in most situations of alleged â€Å"indirect military aggression,† states are involved by indirectly providing assistance, training, financial and logistical support, rather than by giving specific instructions or exerc ising effective control over attacks. In such circumstances, a state sponsor commits an internationally wrongful act. For example, the Declaration on Friendly Relations proclaims that â€Å"no state shall organize, assist, foment, finance, incite or tolerate subversive, terrorist or armed activities directed towards the violent overthrow of the regime of another state, or interfere in civil strife in another state.† [FN82] Nonetheless, the state victim of an attack by non-state actors would only be allowed to resort to peaceful countermeasures. The state supporting the attack would effectively be shielded from the use of military force. *279 In an age where terrorism is universally recognized as one of the most serious threats to international peace and security, [FN83] a strict insistence on the need for state responsibility seems untenable. Such a position has also been challenged by several judges of the ICJ. In relation to the Palestinian Wall advisory opinion, for example, Judge Kooijmans, Judge Buergenthal, and Judge Higgins all emphasized that nothing in the text of Article 51 stipulates that self-defense is available only when an armed attack is made by a state. [FN84] Both Judge Kooijmans and Judge Buergenthal suggested that Security Council Resolutions 1368 and 1373 marked a new approach to self-defense, regretting that the Court had by-passed these new elements. [FN85] Judge Higgins has written separately to reiterate her earlier criticism of the Courts reliance on the Definition of Aggression in the context of the Nicaragua case. [FN86] Criticism had grown stronger by the time of the DRC v. Uganda case, where the role of irregular forces was at the heart of the dispute. Several judges regretted that the Court had not taken the opportunity â€Å"to clarify the state of the law on a highly controversial matter, marked by great controversy and confusionnot the least because it was the Court itself that ha[d] substantially contributed to this confusion by its Nicaragua judgment. . . .† [FN87] Judge Kooijmans and Judge Simma were mainly concerned with a phenomenon â€Å"which in present-day international relations has unfortunately become as familiar as terrorism,† namely the almost complete absence of government authority in the whole or part of the territory of a state. [FN88] Both suggested that in such circumstances one should only look at the scale and effects of an attack to determine the applicability of Article 51. Judge Koroma, on the other hand, argued that a states â€Å"massive support for arme d groups, including deliberately allowing them access to its territory† could be characterized as an â€Å"armed attack.† [FN89] Finally, Judge ad hoc Kateka rejected the idea that â€Å"the provision of arms, coupled with ‘logistical and other support†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ could not qualify as an armed attack. [FN90] These separate and dissenting opinions acquire a particular meaning if we look at recent evolutions in state practice and opinio iuris. Here we notice a trend of abandoning the need for state imputability in two different scenarios, namely cases where a state supports the activities of non-state actors and cases where a state is unable to prevent non-state actors from carrying out attacks. Research Papers on Israel's Right to Self-DefenseTwilight of the UAWCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite ReligionUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresPETSTEL analysis of IndiaHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductCapital PunishmentThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThree Concepts of Psychodynamic

Short paper on George Lucas career.

Short paper on George Lucas career. George Lucas born and grew up on a walnut ranch in Modesto, California. When Lucas was in his late teens he developed an interest in drag racing. However, a severe car accident changed what he had wanted to be when he grew up. Originally he had wanted to be a race car driver. Lucas had gone to Modesto Junior college before attending the University of Southern California film school. While he was attending film school he made several short films such as THX-1138:4EB, which had one first prize at the national student film festival. In 1967 he was granted a scholarship to watch the making of the movie Finian's Rainbow, which was directed by Francis Ford Coppola, who had also directed the movie The Godfather. In 1969 Coppola and Lucas created a company called American Zoetrope. The first undertaking of the company was a full length version of Lucas's THX-1138.A portrait of George Lucas, Pasadena, California, ...In 1971, when Coppola started directing The Godfather Lucas had set out and c reated his own company called Lucasfilm Ltd. In 1973 he had written and directed the film American Graffiti. American Graffiti had won the Golden Globe and had been nominated for five Academy Awards. In 1973 he had started writing the screen play for the movie Star Wars, which he was inspired to write by Flash Gordon and Planet of the Apes. He established ILM (Industrial Light and Magic) for the special effects for the movie. Sprocket Systems was established to edit and mix it and it later became know as Skywalker Sounds. His movie was turned down by a few different companies until Twentieth Century Fox had liked the idea. The film had broken all box office records and had received seven Academy Awards. Lucas along with Steven Spielberg had created the Indiana Jones which the...

Capitalizing and Punctuating Quotations

Capitalizing and Punctuating Quotations Capitalizing and Punctuating Quotations Capitalizing and Punctuating Quotations By Mark Nichol Quotations consisting of complete sentences should always be capitalized, as explained in the discussions and shown in the revisions to the following examples. (Note, too, that each sentence has a punctuation error.) 1. The pendant around his neck reads â€Å"all things are possible.† â€Å"All things are possible† is a complete sentence that follows an attribution, and therefore the first word must be capitalized: â€Å"The pendant around his neck reads, ‘All things are possible.’† (Also, an attribution must be set off from the quotation by a comma.) 2. It’s important to remember to ask ourselves, â€Å"would I spend my own money this way†? The question â€Å"Would I spend my own money this way?† is complete, so capitalization of the first word is required: â€Å"It’s important to remember to ask ourselves, ‘Would I spend my own money this way?’† (Also, note that the quotation, not the framing sentence, is a question, so the question mark must precede the close quotation mark.) 3. He reassured customers who are concerned about their safety saying, â€Å"we are also going to make sure our commitment to safety is unwavering.† This quotation may appear to be a continuation of the main clause of the sentence, but it is a complete sentence on its own and should be capitalized: â€Å"He reassured customers who are concerned about their safety, saying, ‘We are also going to make sure our commitment to safety is unwavering.’† (Also, saying and the quotation constitute a subordinate clause, so to set the clauses off from each other, a comma must precede saying.) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Words with More Than One SpellingLoan, Lend, Loaned, LentSupervise vs. Monitor

Inequalities And Its Eeffects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Inequalities And Its Eeffects - Essay Example a from the World Bank, the World Health Organization, the United Nations and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and others. â€Å"To avoid being accused of picking and choosing our measures, our approach in this book has been to take measures provided by official agencies rather than calculating our own† (Wilkinson and Pickett 2009, pg. 18). However, this approach of the authors to prove their hypothesis was not accepted by all the experts. They found loopholes in this methodology, particularly the statistical analysis part, and thereby found loopholes in their arguments as well. The point put forward was, by just drawing lines or even a â€Å"line of best fit† based on a various variables and series of data points does not hold any statistical significance, unless the statistical analyses was done. They are convinced that these statistical tables do not provide the correct picture, as adequate analyses were not done. This was pointed out by Moore (2010) â€Å"Drawing a line through a series of data points signals nothing concrete†¦ The authors promise that they "have only included a best-fit line through the points"†¦But since they do not provide any statistical analyses, this can't be verified.† Kay (2009) further adds up against the methodology and thereby the argument of the authors by pointing out how regression methods may not correctly aid in analyzing the economic and importantly social statistics. As social statistics could be influenced by various variables, and is an evolving process, it cannot be easily focused. In addition, adequate data were not given in relation to the estimated equations. Thus, if one â€Å"removes the bold lines from the diagram, the pattern of points mostly looks random, and the data dominated by a few... This esssay stresses that the inequality can be measured as the one that happens between the rich and the poor in a particular country, and not inequalities between the rich countries and the poor countries. The key point or differentiation, the authors make, is that wellbeing of a country’s people, cannot be actualized or should not be judged based only on the wealth or economic status of that particular country. Instead, the focus should be far more deeper, with the economic inequalities between the rich and the poorer sections of the population mainly deciding the welfare of the people. Spatial based concentration of anything including population, industries and also income could also lead to inequalities. Authors Wilkinson and Pickett points out how more equal distribution of resources and thereby the income status â€Å"will mean fewer people will be living in shanty towns, with dirt water and food insecurity†. This paper makes a conclusion that these inequalities is prevalent for the past few centuries only because of the advancements particularly in economic, social and technology sphere, which took place mainly in the last few centuries. In the earlier centuries, human beings lived in a mostly egalitarian prehistoric hunting and gathering societies with very minimal inequalities. However, as the world advanced certain sections of the population utilizing the various advancements, progressed optimally, while leaving behind others. This inequality is now visible in various facets of human life and is leading to various repercussions for the people

Modern slavery Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Modern slavery - Research Paper Example Callahan displays the victims as resilient and willing to fight for their right, after being given another chance at life by their benefactors. The first stage in the trafficking process is the presence of some sort of vulnerability in the victim (Bales and Soodalter 141). From the video â€Å"Dreams Die Hard†, the first victim, Maria, was a young girl without a job, desperate and ready to trust an individual she had never met before. Miguel was vulnerable because he needed money to get medical help for his son and help his family. The last two victims, Rose and Christy, needed to get to the United States to get an education. These instances present the vulnerability factors of each victim. The second stage of human trafficking; recruitment, also varies with each individual victim (Bales and Soodalter 142). Maria was recruited through promises of a job in the neighborhood, Miguel was recruited through his own personal effort, and the last two victims were recruited through their families and the hope of a better life. Each victim was recruited into slavery and human trafficking through hope of a better future. The third step in the trafficking process, removal, is also depicted by all the victims. According to Bales and Soodalter (143), the victim has to place themselves into the hands of the trafficker, and in the video, it is evident that all the victims passed through this crucial step. Maria went to the perpetrator’s house voluntarily, Miguel also moved from his home into the trafficker’s hands, and the two girls were sent to the United States by their parents. The next two steps, transportation and establishment of control are often synonymous. In the video, Maria went to the residence of her oppressor willingly, and after some time, she was informed that she had been bought and that her family would be killed if she tried to run. Miguel was controlled by being informed that the money he had paid for transport was not

What were the key issues in India's identity at the end of the Essay

What were the key issues in India's identity at the end of the twentieth century How did they compare with the key issues a century before - Essay Example What is also significant to note that there are other smaller and fragmented groups within the majority population of the country thus making it more difficult to carve out a different and unique identity for all? During last century, India witnessed significant conflict between different groups and identity crisis was one of the main elements of concern for the country. Religious and ethnic conflicts, Hindu caste system as well as developing a unique cultural identity were some of the issues which India dealt with during last century and will probably continue to deal with in future also. This paper will therefore discuss some of the key issues faced by India during last century and how they were different from the India of 19th Century. In a sense this paper will provide a comprehensive analysis of how India dealt with some of its critical issues during twentieth century. Though on paper India is a secular country with no official religion however, almost every area of life is dominated by Hindus as they are in the majority there. India has been ruled by Muslims for hundred of years and it’s because of this reason that the Indian Muslims have a very strong inclination and tendency towards maintaining their separate identity. Over the period of time, different religious and ethnic groups such as Sikhs have been merged with the Hindu majority however, Muslims have probably struggled hard to keep their separate identity. It is because of this reason that the India has remained a religiously volatile country as religious conflicts were common during last century. The ethnic violence in Mumbai during 1990s and the Babri Mosque incidents were some of the glaring examples of India’s fragility in terms of achieving religious harmony and peace. (Mahurkar). Similarly, Hindu majority was at odds with Sikhs and Christian minorities also and there w ere

Environmental Scanning for the Vermont Teddy Bear Company Essay

Environmental Scanning for the Vermont Teddy Bear Company - Essay Example 4. Local supply exceeds demand 0.1 2 0.2 looking at the profitability of their various retail locations 5. Web site update 0.0 4 0.0 Web services for customers open new market opportunities 7. Product innovation and development 0.2 3 0.6 Increase the competitiveness of products 8. Offshore Resources philosophy 0.2 4 0.8 They help to lower the price level 9. Lack of consistent funding source and reduction of funding 0.1 3 0.3 The least-obligation was repayable on a 20-year amortization schedule through July 2017 Total 2.8 Vermont Teddy Bear Company operates in a simple and static environment. Firms operating in a relatively simple and static environment can generally rely on management strategies that are based on historical data (and past success). Customer needs and hence sales forecasting can generally be predicted from past records. However there is a danger that managers become complacent and the survival of the business may be jeopardized by sudden and unexpected changes as with a change in the law making the sale of certain types of firework illegal. The external scanning involves the threat of entry to an industry by new competitors depends up the 'height' of a number of entry barriers. Lower the entry barriers to an industry are, the more competitors i.e. be players in the industry. Barriers to entry can take a number forms. The size of the investment required by a business wishing to enter industry will be an important determinant of the extent new entrants. Manufacturing industry like Vermont Teddy Bear Company is subject to a complex regulate framework whereas others are less so. Still, even if it is possible to predict the needs of customer there are some threats and new opportunities which should be taken into... Vermont Teddy Bear Company operates in a simple and static environment. Firms operating in a relatively simple and static environment can generally rely on management strategies that are based on historical data (and past success). Customer needs and hence sales forecasting can generally be predicted from past records. However there is a danger that managers become complacent and the survival of the business may be jeopardized by sudden and unexpected changes as with a change in the law making the sale of certain types of firework illegal. The external scanning involves the threat of entry to an industry by new competitors depends up the 'height' of a number of entry barriers. Lower the entry barriers to an industry are, the more competitors i.e. be players in the industry. Barriers to entry can take a number forms. The size of the investment required by a business wishing to enter industry will be an important determinant of the extent new entrants. Manufacturing industry like Vermont Teddy Bear Company is subject to a complex regulate framework whereas others are less so. Still, even if it is possible to predict the needs of customer there are some threats and new opportunities which should be taken into consideration. The threat of entry was chosen because it is related to the ease with which a new business can establish itself in the same product market.

Degeneration of Free Enterprise Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Degeneration of Free Enterprise Systems - Essay Example Free enterprise systems trace their roots way back in the 18th century when governments restricted individuals from owning and starting their own businesses. In a free enterprise system, the control of goods and services is through demand and supply, as well as competition. There are laws in place that encourage free market competition and avoidance of monopolies. A free enterprise system is self-regulating, where all parties are free to transact with each other. The only government intervention carried out is punishment on frauds. Competition within a free enterprise ensures production of excellent goods. In a free enterprise system, individuals enjoy the freedom of owning private property. Businesses and individuals are free to engage in contracts (Elijah 41). Therefore, the agreement to sell or buy goods, whether oral or written, is legally binding. On the other hand, individuals enjoy the freedom to make personal choices. They communicate those choices throughout the pricing syst em. In addition, people are free to participate in free competition and enterprise (Elijah 42). They do this by choosing a place they will work and manage their own business. If they desire so, they are free to choose the type and amount of services and goods they are willing to produce. According to Adam Smith, self interest acts as a force that dictates the behaviors of businesses and individuals. Therefore, people are free to search for their own self-interest. Fascism is a form of authoritarian and nationalistic government organization (Leon 5). In a fascist system, the government may not own businesses but does control them. The government controls what is produced, who is to produce it, when to produce it, what prices to charge, where to find raw materials and labor. Labor becomes largely suppressed under fascist forms of governments. The government makes the owners of business to believe they still own their business, yet they control them through regulations and taxations. F ascist governments are defined as governments that control large corporations. Fascism advocates for war and political violence as means of achieving nationalism (Leon 5). A fascist state is controlled by a leader who becomes viewed supreme and practices dictatorship on the government and other government enterprises. It is also defined as a government form characterized by authority centralization under a dictator. Fascism is a government system where all forms of business enterprises become regimented under a dictator who emphasizes on the need for nationalism. Fascism may also be coupled with racism. An oligarchy is a form of government where a limited number of people control power. Normally, such people may be in control of a country’s government, they can also be wealthy individuals. Degeneration of a Free Enterprise system Degeneration of free enterprise happens when there is a decline of effectiveness of power, essential quality or power itself. Degeneration of a free enterprise system if not controlled can lead to systems associated with fascist oligarchs. A free enterprise may crumble either because of forceful government intervention or market forces. In case a free enterprise system degenerates as a result of market forces then the government may intervene, but if it is through forceful intervention, then the most likely outcome may be a fascist oligarch. Fascism presents the first step of degeneration of a f

Introduction to Transportation Management Questions Assignment

Introduction to Transportation Management Questions - Assignment Example The key focus revolves around the formulation and adoption of strategic plans that aim to define transport logistics requirements for the firm, identify ways and means in which these requirements can be met most effectively and optimizing business processes to ensure cost effective means of procurement and delivery of goods (Deloitte, 2011). Logistics decisions are based on the operational requirements and the overall focus of the management is on creating and adopting a high value oriented solution that is cost effective and reliable. The key aspects considered in this process are reliability of choices, accuracy of information available at the time of transit of goods, and the time required for transit. Transportation activities can be made more effective and efficient through the use of information systems that help in tracking the movement of goods. Firms can leverage their transportation activity and develop it as an internal competency that can contribute to competitive advantage through adequate focus on optimized supply chain process and effective information systems that can help in efficient decision making (Coyle et al., 2011). Transportation project planning is the process by which state governing agencies monitor and address the demand for movement of goods, commodity and people in the region. Various transportation alternatives are considered and implemented based on the requirements analysis. One of the key aspects behind the rampant adoption of project planning activities in the transportation segment in US economy is the role it plays in developing existing transport alternatives and establishing more efficient systems that can cater to the growing demands from various sectors of the economy. Growth in trading activities and economic requirements has placed intense pressure on governance bodies to develop infrastructural facilities (Coyle et al., 2011). Moreover, investment in developing transportation

Degeneration of Free Enterprise Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Degeneration of Free Enterprise Systems - Essay Example Free enterprise systems trace their roots way back in the 18th century when governments restricted individuals from owning and starting their own businesses. In a free enterprise system, the control of goods and services is through demand and supply, as well as competition. There are laws in place that encourage free market competition and avoidance of monopolies. A free enterprise system is self-regulating, where all parties are free to transact with each other. The only government intervention carried out is punishment on frauds. Competition within a free enterprise ensures production of excellent goods. In a free enterprise system, individuals enjoy the freedom of owning private property. Businesses and individuals are free to engage in contracts (Elijah 41). Therefore, the agreement to sell or buy goods, whether oral or written, is legally binding. On the other hand, individuals enjoy the freedom to make personal choices. They communicate those choices throughout the pricing syst em. In addition, people are free to participate in free competition and enterprise (Elijah 42). They do this by choosing a place they will work and manage their own business. If they desire so, they are free to choose the type and amount of services and goods they are willing to produce. According to Adam Smith, self interest acts as a force that dictates the behaviors of businesses and individuals. Therefore, people are free to search for their own self-interest. Fascism is a form of authoritarian and nationalistic government organization (Leon 5). In a fascist system, the government may not own businesses but does control them. The government controls what is produced, who is to produce it, when to produce it, what prices to charge, where to find raw materials and labor. Labor becomes largely suppressed under fascist forms of governments. The government makes the owners of business to believe they still own their business, yet they control them through regulations and taxations. F ascist governments are defined as governments that control large corporations. Fascism advocates for war and political violence as means of achieving nationalism (Leon 5). A fascist state is controlled by a leader who becomes viewed supreme and practices dictatorship on the government and other government enterprises. It is also defined as a government form characterized by authority centralization under a dictator. Fascism is a government system where all forms of business enterprises become regimented under a dictator who emphasizes on the need for nationalism. Fascism may also be coupled with racism. An oligarchy is a form of government where a limited number of people control power. Normally, such people may be in control of a country’s government, they can also be wealthy individuals. Degeneration of a Free Enterprise system Degeneration of free enterprise happens when there is a decline of effectiveness of power, essential quality or power itself. Degeneration of a free enterprise system if not controlled can lead to systems associated with fascist oligarchs. A free enterprise may crumble either because of forceful government intervention or market forces. In case a free enterprise system degenerates as a result of market forces then the government may intervene, but if it is through forceful intervention, then the most likely outcome may be a fascist oligarch. Fascism presents the first step of degeneration of a f

Prevent Infection in Hospitalized Neutropenic patients with Cancer Speech or Presentation

Prevent Infection in Hospitalized Neutropenic patients with Cancer - Speech or Presentation Example The most common source of infection in hospitalized cancer patients is the central venous catheter, or CVC. Nurses must be meticulous in their hygiene when administering a CVC, starting with hand-washing and clean or sterile gloves, and also ensure that the insertion site is sterilized. However, topical antibiotic creams should not be used, as they tend to encourage fungal infection. Dressing should be changed regularly, as well as whenever they become visibly dirty (Zitella, 2010). As always, the nursing staff must ensure that all medical devices intended for internal use are sterile, especially catheters (Hachem et al., 2009). The most important thing a nurse, or for that matter, anyone, can do to prevent patient infection is hand hygiene (Friese, 2007). Nurses and other clinicians should wash their hands before contact with any patient and between each patient. Also, outpatients should be taught proper hand-washing technique to ensure they do not carry bacteria and viruses into th e hospital to infect the admitted patients, and to protect the outpatients themselves from outside infections (Zitella, 2010). Another method of hygiene that patients undergoing cancer treatment should follow to protect them from infection is tooth and mouth care. Tooth and mouth care helps stop colonization of the soft palate and gums with Streptococcal bacteria. Patients should brush their teeth at least three times daily using toothpaste and an extra soft toothbrush to prevent scratches on the gums and tongue. Additionally, some benefit may be gained from the use of a clorhexidine mouth rinse at each tooth brushing session, though studies suggest that this step is not always required (Antunes et al., 2010). Patients have historically been prescribed a low-microbial diet to avoid infection from fresh fruits and vegetables. However, if general food safety practices are followed, avoiding fresh produce does not seem to confer any major health benefit to oncology patients. Such neutr openic patients should not eat uncooked fish as in the form of sushi, raw or undercooked eggs, or any unwashed produce (Zitella, 2010). For nearly every neutropenic patient, however, there will come a time when preventative measures fail and infection with fever becomes present. When this occurs, it is vital that the patient's nursing staff is aware of the severity of this issue. The patient must be treated immediately with broad, global antibiotics to combat the infection. For these patients, infection with gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria can be equally as harmful, and so any neutrophenic patient presenting with a fever should be treated the same way (Freifeld et al., 2011). Neutrophenic immune-compromised patients should also receive an influenza vaccine, as the risk of death or serious illness from influenza outweighs the possibility of risk from the vaccine itself. For these patients, an inactivated vaccine is safest. The administration of the vaccine should be timed ca refully between rounds of chemotherapy treatments, as the reduced immune system of the patients can lead to a reduced reaction to the vaccine. Since the vaccine may not be as effective in protecting these patients as it would be in protecting healthy persons, nurses must be aware that the patient may still be susceptible to influenza. Precautions should include all

Shakespeares Macbeth Essay Example for Free

Shakespeares Macbeth Essay In Shakespeares Macbeth, which character or characters bear most responsibility for the death of Duncan? Discuss. Shakespeares drama Macbeth was first performed in 1603 and appears to celebrate the accession to the English throne of King James I, who was believed to be the descendant of one of the plays characters, Banquo. The plot originates from the ancient Scottish story of King Macbeth of Scotland. Macbeth is the Thane of Glamis, and holds the position of general in the kings army. He is tempted with the prospect of becoming king himself by three witches he meets on a heath. This creates an internal moral dilemma which is exacerbated after he writes to his wife, informing her of his experiences. This compels her to exert pressure upon him, and give orders and ultimatums; and so on the surface Macbeth appears to be a victim of external forces. With this in mind I intend to examine these characters in turn to see who bears the greatest blame for the death of King Duncan. This play was intended for King James Is attention. We know this through the use of Scotland, James homeland, as a backdrop to the story and the characterisation of his ancestor, Banquo. The characters of the three weird sisters are intended as a reference to King James obsession with witches and witchcraft. In his treatise Daemonologie (1597) he wrote of them as demonic supernatural beings who served a purpose as tempters. According to him, their purpose was the damnation of their victims soul. Their role as tempters in the play relates to James belief that God may test people, even the best (God will permit so to be tempted or troubled), and this demonstrates that the witches motives for targeting Macbeth was not merely a cruel trick but may be seen as part of a greater design in which he is to be tested by God. This demonstrates that even a hero must be subjected to temptation (and euen some of the best, that their patience may bee tryed before the world). Though the witches are malevolent, they could possibly be instruments of God (rather than the Devil as suggested in Act 3 Scene 5, where the character of Hecate comes to direct the witches; however, this character is probably a later interpolation by another writer, as the Folio was printed seven years after Shakespeares death). Macbeths subsequent failing through succumbing to temptation and killing Duncan is not the fault of God nor the witches, but himself. This illustrates the ubiquitous nature of temptation, and shows that all people are plagued with their own demons of desire; however these demons cannot be blamed for leading their victims astray because the responsibility lies with the person who chooses not to resist temptation. We must deal with the possibility that the witches possessed Macbeth, and that he may not be responsible for his actions. The frequent use of the word rapt, which comes from rapture, suggests the transportation of the soul. This is seen in the play when Banquo comments on Macbeths appearance upon being told he is to be the new thane of Cawdor; (Look, how our partners rapt). However his subsequent actions prove he is capable of free will (We will proceed no further in this business) and that he is therefore responsible for his actions. In conclusion, Macbeth is capable of making choices, and he chooses to commit regicide for personal gain. This was not forced upon him by the satanic tempters, they are not controlling him. One character who does attempt to exert control over Macbeth however is his wife, Lady Macbeth. In the next paragraph we will examine the way in which she attempts to do this and to what extent she is responsible for the tragedy. Lady Macbeth was first told of the witches prophecy in a letter from her husband. Her first reaction is to doubt her husbands ability to achieve it, (Thou wouldst be great, Art not without ambition, but without the illness should attend it). Her use of the word illness refers to her suspicion that Macbeth does not possess the necessary ruthlessness to enable him to become king. This establishes her as the dominant partner in their marriage, which extends to her taking the lead in the plot to supplant Duncan with Macbeth. Her invocation of evil spirits is an invitation to Satan to purge her of her humanity (And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full / Of direst cruelty) so to as better enable herself to conspire to murder. Lady Macbeth is aware that her husband has great affection for her (he calls her My dearest partner of greatness and my dearest love), and uses this to her own advantage when she persuades Macbeth to follow through with her plan when he has doubts (We will proceed no further in this business). She achieves this by calling into question his love for her (Such I account thy love) and uses this supposed implantation of doubt in his character as a tool by which she can control him. When she uses the word desire for his ambition (As thou art in desire), she is attacking his masculinity and insinuating that if he does not do this he is not really a man. There are two elements of desire she refers to, the ambition to become king, and also implying sexual desire by which she is challenging his masculinity and provoking a reaction. Macbeth takes the bait (I dare do all that may become a man), meaning he is now resolved to proving to her that he is a man. She says she will not consider him a man until he fulfils his promise (And to be more than what you were, you would be so much more the man). This also demonstrates her use of flattery to coerce him to her will. Another emotional tool Lady Macbeth wields to her advantage is the memory of hers and Macbeths deceased child. (How tender tis to love the babe that milks me, / I would dashed the brains out, had I so sworn as you / Have done to this.) She uses this memory as a shock tactic, evoking the raw anger and passions that stem from losing a child, to show Macbeth that had she promised to do something she would honour that promise, and so must he. We know that Macbeth has no children from a conversation Macduff has with Malcolm, telling him that Macbeth has no children. Therefore we must deduce the Macbeths have suffered a bereavement, for Lady Macbeth previously mentions the feelings of motherhood. From this we see Lady Macbeth does play a substantial role in the killing of Duncan, however she argues she was justified to take this course of action because her husband Macbeth wants her to, or else he wouldnt have sent the letter. What beast wast, then, / That made you break this enterprise to me?). His letter to Lady Macbeth could possibly be his subconscious mind, anticipating his inhibitions, and so constructing an external force, in the form of Lady Macbeth, to impede any change of mind or unwillingness to kill Duncan. Earlier pre-Freudian commentators thought that Lady Macbeth was over-reacting to Macbeths remarks on the witches. However in the light of Freuds theories on the unconscious mind (that your statements reflect your deepest preoccupations), Macbeths mentioning of the witches prophecy in his letter to his wife could be interpreted as an invitation to her to help him realise it. It seems that Macbeth would not have killed Duncan without the pressure from his wife. However his initial openness to believe that the witches prophecies are true (Tell me more), are indicative of his underlying aspirations to be king. Banquo, who was himself prepared to indulge in their stories, and even invited them (Speak then to me) harboured no such allusions of entitled greatness. He quickly tries to relinquish the witches promises, dismissing them as tricks (The instruments of darkness tell us truthsto betrays in deepest consequence). Shakespeare was constrained in his ability to portray Banquo as anything less than chivalrous because of his historical relation to James I, who believed him to be a distant ancestor. However, Shakespeare was able to use Banquo as a dramatic contrast to Macbeth. In Act 2 Scene 1 Banquo was able to resist his temptations by the calling of heavenly powers to help banish the traitorous thoughts from his mind. In contrast Macbeths own willingness to believe in the witches so fervently is an indicator of an already formulated plan to deprive Duncan of his throne. Throughout the play Macbeth continuously abdicates responsibility for his actions (I go, and it is done; the bell invites me), preferring to concentrate on his end goal rather than the suffering he is causing in the present. Macbeth says of the hallucinated dagger Thou marshallst me the way that I was going, which demonstrates his belief that fate (represented through the instrument of murder, the dagger) is compelling him to commit these acts of evil by leading his hand for him. (If it were done when tis done, then twere well / It were done quickly). Here he shows he takes no pleasure in his actions and wants them over as soon as possible. The audience understands that this is just a coping mechanism that allows him to carry out these evil deeds; however his ability to remain apathetic and dissociated with his actions does not allow him to escape ultimate responsibility. Shakespeares attempts at dealing with issues of responsibility and motivation in his characters bring up some initially unexpected conclusions upon penetrating the surface. The most telling of these is perhaps Macbeth himself, whose conflicted aspirations of greatness, greed and apathy in the face of suffering are indicative of the worst of human nature. Another character who demonstrates a number of human qualities is Lady Macbeth, who has often been misrepresented as the figurehead of greed and self-interest in the past. In fact she could possibly be seen as the victim of an indecisive husband who uses her to carry his burdens of self doubt and insecurity. The witches initial roles as catalysts of events through their indiscriminate torture of Macbeth are in fact, when considered within the context of James Is book Daemonologie, sent by God as judges to test Macbeth. The underlying message of the play is the uncomfortable responsibility that we must all take responsibility for our own actions, and that however much wed like to be able to pass blame, we cant.